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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQS);faqs.047
gopher@boombox.micro.umn.edu
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Q5: Who Develops Gopher Software?
A5: Gopher was originally developed in April 1991 by the University
of Minnesota Microcomputer, Workstation, Networks Center to help
our campus find answers to their computer questions.
It has since grown into a full-fledged World Wide Information
System used by a large number of sites in the world.
Many people have contributed to the project, too numerous to
count.
The people behind the much of the gopher software can be reached
via e-mail at gopher@boombox.micro.umn.edu, or via paper mail:
Internet Gopher Developers
100 Union St. SE #190
Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
Or via FAX at:
+1 (612) 625-6817
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Q6: How can I set up a "CSO" phone book server? Where is the software?
A6: CSO phone book servers are also known as "qi" servers. The
software implementation can be gotten via anonymous ftp from
uxc.cso.uiuc.edu (128.174.5.50) as /pub/qi.tar.Z. You may also
see this referred to as "ph", which is what most of the clients
are called. A collected set of clients for Macs, PCs, VMS, VM,
etc, are in the /pub/ph.tar.Z file.
There is also an archive of the mailing list for qi/ph software on
the same machine. It's in /pub/info-ph.archive. You may join the
list by sending email to info-ph-request@uxc.cso.uiuc.edu.
This software is supported by Paul Pomes <p-pomes@uiuc.edu>
Contact him for more information.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q7: Why can't I access the University of Minnesota's UPI news?
A7: The University of Minnesota has a site license for UPI news, we
are not allowed to distribute it off of our campus. We get our
UPI news from Clarinet. For more information about getting UPI
news send mail to info@clarinet.com. For information about
setting up your own gopher-UPI server search the gopher-news
archive for UPI.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q9: What are the type characters for the different Gopher Objects?
A9: Normal IDs.
0 Item is a file
1 Item is a directory
2 Item is a CSO (qi) phone-book server
3 Error
4 Item is a BinHexed Macintosh file.
5 Item is DOS binary archive of some sort.
6 Item is a UNIX uuencoded file.
7 Item is an Index-Search server.
8 Item points to a text-based telnet session.
9 Item is a binary file! Client must read until the connection
closes. Beware.
T TN3270 connection.
Experimental IDs.
s Sound type. Data stream is a mulaw sound.
g GIF type.
M MIME type. Item contains MIME data.
h html type.
I Image type.
i "inline" text type (used by panda).
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q10: When I do full-text searches I always get every document back, Why?
A10: This is a problem occasionally encountered with Unix full-text
indexes. It is caused by setting up the link incorrectly to a
gindexd port.
The Path= field should be *blank* when pointing to a gindexd
index.
Otherwise the client will send the path to the gindexd daemon,
which interprets everything as a keyword. This path is
likely to contain a pathname that is common to all of the indexed
files. Thus a search generates hits on everything.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q11: When I try to build the UNIX software I get an error from make:
"Must be a separator on rules line #. Stop" Why?
A11: This is a problem with older makes that don't understand the "include"
keyword. One easy way to cope with this problem is compiling GNU
make, which does understand the include keyword.
If this is too difficult, remove the line:
include Makefile.config
from all the Makefiles and paste in a copy of Makefile.config at
the top of each Makefile.
Or, instead of pasting you can make the client/server by going
into the appropriate directory and typing:
make -f ../Makefile.config -f Makefile
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q12: What is the relationship between Gopher and (WAIS, WWW, ftp)?
A12: Gopher is intimately intertwined with these two other systems.
As shipped the Unix gopher server has the capability to:
- Search local WAIS indices.
- Query remote WAIS servers and funnel the results to gopher
clients.
- Query remote ftp sites and funnel the results to gopher
clients.
- Be queried by WWW (World Wide Web) clients (either using
built in gopher querying or using native http querying.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q13: Are papers or articles describing Gopher available?
A13: Gopher has a whole chapter devoted to it in :
_The_Whole_Internet_, Ed Kroll, O'Reilly, 1992 (Editors note:
..Great book, go out and buy a bunch!)
Other references include:
_The_Internet_Gopher_, "ConneXions", July 1992, Interop.
_Exploring_Internet_GopherSpace_ "The Internet Society News", v1n2 1992,
(You can subscribe to the Internet Society News by sending e-mail to
isoc@nri.reston.va.us)
_The_Internet_Gopher_Protocol_, Proceedings of the Twenty-Third
IETF, CNRI, Section 5.3
_Internet_Gopher_, Proceedings of Canadian Networking '92
_The_Internet_Gopher_, INTERNET: Getting Started, SRI
International, Section 10.5.5
_Tools_help_Internet_users_discover_on-line_treasures, Computerworld,
July 20, 1992
_TCP/IP_Network_Administration_, O'Reilly.
Balakrishan, B. (Oct 1992)
"SPIGopher: Making SPIRES databases accessible through the
Gopher protocol". SPIRES Fall '92 Workshop, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina.
Tomer, C. Information Technology Standards for Libraries,
_Journal of the American Society for Information Science_,
43(8):566-570, Sept 1992.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q14: On a DECstation I get the error message "/etc/svc.conf no such file
or directory" when running the gopherd server, why?
A14: This is caused by the chroot() call in gopherd. It can be easily
fixed by running gopherd with the -c option.
Alternatively you can copy /etc/svc.conf into a directory named
"etc" inside the gopher-data directory.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q15: The boolean searching terms don't work for my full-text index, why?
A15: This is probably because the searching is being provided by WAIS.
WAIS opts to return all documents that contain a search phrase
within certain limits. WAIS searches do return the documents with
the highest "score" at the top, those documents will have the
closest relevance.
Alternatively you could get a booleanized version of wais from
ftp.bio.indiana.edu.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q16: When linking the Unix gopher server with WAIS I get undefined
symbols,
such as:
log_file_name
logfile
PrintStatus
find_value
Sources
NumSources
A17: This happens if you make gopherd before linking in the WAIS ir/ui
directories. The fix is to "make clean" or remove
gopherd/{waisgopher.o,Waisindex.o} and then remake gopherd. Or
link the ir/ui directories first.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q18: Why don't my WAIS indexes work? I never get anything back for searches.
or Why do I get "Dangling file" error messages in my logfile?
A18: The problem could be in the server. The server should be run
using the -c option if you want WAIS to work. Another solution is to
patch the WAIS code so that it doesn't check the files on the disk.
Search the gopher-news archive for "dangling". This will turn up a
single document with the patch.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q19: My gopher server doesn't work under inetd, why?
A19: It could be that your inetd server only supports a limited amount
of arguments. For instance, the maximum number of arguments to an
inetd server is 5. You can get around this by combining arguments: i.e.
gopherd -I -c
becomes:
gopherd -Ic
You may also leave the port specifier off of the command line.
The gopher server automagically finds out the port it's running on.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q20: This is not a bug report, just a curiousity. I managed to install
gopher on my PC, more or less by myself, which is a pretty good
accomplishment, for someone who hasn't installed hardly anything on a
PC. I then proceeded to load my PC/TCP kernel, ETHDRV, and try to
start up gopher. It said it couldn't initialize that stack(?). I have
to load this whenever I use PC/TCP. Incredibly, when I did not load
ETHDRV, Gopher came up immediately and telneted to our local server.
How does it know what kernel to load?
A20 Dr. Science says,
The Internet Gopher program is not actually computer program at
all, but a collection of magical incantations handed down from Dark
Age conjurors. It works by sending magical "demons" through the air,
which scour the world for information, and then return to cast
illusions containing the answer.
When you use the Gopher, your computer isn't actually doing
anything at all. Instead, these demons have mesmirized you with an
evil magical spell, which was invoked by the pattern of
finger-movements peculiar to the typing of the letters G-O-P-H-E-R on
your keyboard. This spell transmits demonic information directly to
your brain.
Scientists aren't certain of the long-term effects of demonic
mesmirization, although former presidents have suffered only minor
medical side-effects from it. Indeed, since Magic and Science are
usually opposed to each other, most Scientists are usually
close-minded about such issues, and will usually respond with some
vacuous non-answer about "packet drivers", "stacks", and other such
jargon.
Unlike conventional scientists, Dr. Science is very open-minded and
is willing to deal with such issues in a frank and honest manner.
This is why people come to him with questions, and why they've learned
to rely on and live by his answers.
Dr. Science
"I'm not a real doctor; I have a Master's Degree.... in SCIENCE!"
:-) :-) :-) :-)
There's always room for a little humor in a FAQ..
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q21: Help! I have PC-NFS and want to use the PC-Gopher client. How?
A21: Use a piece of software called PKTMUX, available at fine ftp
sites everywhere. This will let you use any packet driver
application.
Or, aquire a client that supports PC-NFS. See Q2.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q22: How do I nuke a hung TCP connection? I can't restart my UNIX
gopher server unless I get rid of it, and I don't want to reboot!
A22:
Here is an example of using dbx to change a socket from CLOSING to
CLOSED.
# netstat -A|grep CLOSING
c4bc5100 tcp 0 11 mymachine.gopher 129.89.8.4.70 CLOSING
# dbx -k /vmunix /dev/mem
...
(dbx) 0xc4bc5100+8/1X -- display contents of PCB+8
c4bc5108: 00000007
(dbx) assign 0xc4bc5108=0 -- zero it
0
(dbx) q
After a minute or two, the CLOSED socket should disappear.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q23: Is there somewhere I can retrieve a list of announced gopher
links? I'd like to keep a local, up-to-date list of available gopher
holes without requiring our users to gopher to umn just to scan
GopherSpace.
A23: In the Unix client/server distribution is a perl script called
"gopherdist". Gopherdist can fetch the contents of any point in
GopherSpace.
To dump the contents of all the North American links from
gopher.tc.umn.edu do the following:
% gopherdist gopher.tc.umn.edu 70 "1/Other Gopher and Information
Servers/North America" > .Links
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Q24: Why doesn't my unix gopher client display ISO-Latin-1 characters
properly? BTW I'm using a Sun workstation..
A24: It is the client's problem, the server is perfectly 8-bit transparent.
The BSD curses library uses bit 8 in order to remember, whether a
character has been displayed reverse. So use just /usr/5bin/cc and
you get the System V curses version which is 8 bit clean.
Note that this may be a problem under other versions of UNIX too...
--
| Paul Lindner | lindner@boombox.micro.umn.edu | Slipping into madness
| | Computer & Information Services | is good for the sake
| Gophermaster | University of Minnesota | of comparision.
///// / / / /////// / / / / / / / / //// / / / / / / / /
Xref: bloom-picayune.mit.edu rec.games.go:5722 news.answers:3963
Path: bloom-picayune.mit.edu!senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!usenet
From: adrian@u.washington.edu (Adrian Mariano)
Newsgroups: rec.games.go,news.answers
Subject: The Game Go -- Frequently Asked Questions
Supersedes: <go-faq_719643622@athena.mit.edu>
Followup-To: rec.games.go
Date: 10 Nov 1992 06:00:43 GMT
Organization: University of Washington
Lines: 481
Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu
Expires: 14 Dec 1992 06:00:27 GMT
Message-ID: <go-faq_721375227@athena.mit.edu>
NNTP-Posting-Host: pit-manager.mit.edu
X-Last-Updated: 1992/10/27
Archive-name: go-faq
rec.games.go
Frequently Asked Questions
by Adrian Mariano
adrian@u.washington.edu
Many FAQs, including this one, are available on the archive site
rtfm.mit.edu in the directory pub/usenet/news.answers. The name
under which a FAQ is archived appears after the Archive-name
line at the top of the article. This FAQ is archived as go-faq.
If you do not have ftp, you can request messages from rtfm by using
the local mail server. Send mail to mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu
containing the line "send usenet/news.answers/go-faq" to get this
file. Send a message containing "help" to get general information
about the mail server.
This FAQ is also available on the go archive site: ftp.u.washington.edu
(128.95.136.1)
You can log into the archive site with the username 'ftp' and any
password using the 'ftp' command. The files are in various
subdirectories under public/go. The file public/go/README (posted on
the first of each month to rec.games.go) contains a description of all
files. Filenames which appear below are relative to public/go.
If you don't have ftp, send a message to ftpmail@decwrl.dec.com
containing the single line "help" to get information about ftping by
mail. If you absolutely cannot get the mail server to work, send an
email request to adrian@u.washington.edu and I will mail you the
files.
The go archive site is mirrorred on ftp.pasteur.fr in the pub/Go
directory. The mirror site is maintained by fmc@cnam.cnam.fr.
Questions, comments, and corrections should be sent to
adrian@u.washington.edu.
0. Table of Contents
1. What is go?
2. What are the differences between different rules?
3. How does the ranking system work?
4. What public domain programs can I get to play go?
5. What commercial programs can I get to play go?
6. How strong are the commercial programs?
7. What computer go tournaments exist? What are the prizes?
8. What are the different game record formats and how can I display them?
9. What programs can I get to display go game records?
10. How do I play games by computer?
11. Where can I get go equipment, books, etc?
12. What are the dimensions of a go board?
13. What books should I read?
1. What is go?
Go is a two player strategy board game. Players take turns putting
black and white pieces (called stones) on a board. Stones are placed
on the intersection of the lines on the board, and can be placed on
the edge or in the corner. Once played a stone can not be moved, but
may be captured by the other player. A player can pass at any time.
Go is generally played on a 19 by 19 board, but smaller boards such as
9 by 9 or 13 by 13 are used by beginners or for shorter games.
The object of the game is to surround territory and/or your opponent's
stones. The game ends when both players pass. Under Japanese rules,
each intersection surrounded and each prisoner counts as a point. The
player with the most points wins.
An empty intersection adjacent to a stone (orthogonally) is called a
liberty. For example, a single stone in the middle of the board has 4
liberties. Stones that are adjacent form groups. Every group must
have at least one liberty. When a group's last liberty is filled it
is captured and removed from the board.
It is illegal to make a move which recreates a preceding board
position (to prevent loops). The simplest repeating position is
called a ko.
A brief introduction to the game in Smart-Go format is available on
the archive site as RULES.SG. Beginners can also get comp/igo.zip
from the archive site. This is a stripped down version of Many Faces
of Go for the IBM PC which includes play on the 9 by 9 board and some
instructional material.
2. What are the differences between different rules?
Under Chinese rules, handicap stones are given as free moves whereas
with Japanese rules they are placed on the star points.
Under Japanese rules, score is calculated by counting points of
territory and subtracting the number of captured stones. Points in
seki are not counted. With the Chinese rules, the score is calculated
by counting both points of territory and the number of stones left on
the board. The number of captured stones is not counted. Points
surrounded in seki are counted as territory and points shared in seki
are counted as 1/2 point for each player. Because the sum of the
scores is always 361, only one color needs to be counted.
3. How does the ranking system work?
The ranks are "kyu" and "dan". Kyu means pupil and dan means master,
but there is no qualitative difference. The ranks are like positive
and negative numbers (with no zero). A beginner starts out with a
high kyu rank (20-30 kyu) and advances to the strongest kyu rank of 1
kyu. The next rank above 1 kyu is 1 dan (shodan), and the dan ranks
proceed upward to 7 dan. On the 19x19 board, the number of handicap
stones is the difference between the ranks. A 3 kyu gives seven
stones to a 10 kyu. A 2 dan gives 2 stones to a 1 kyu. The
professional go players have a separate dan scale which goes from 1
dan to 9 dan. The professional scale has finer gradations than the
amateur scale: the difference between 9 dan and 1 dan is about 2
stones.
Statistical analysis of a large number of games (over 2000) by Jos
Vermaseren suggests that the probability of winning an even game is
given by:
P(x) = (1/2)*(2/3)^(2*x)
in which x is the positive difference in rank and P(x) is the chance
that the weaker player wins.
You can determine your strength only by playing aginast others with
known strength. There are books like "Test Your Rating", but those
tests are very unreliable.
On a 13x13 board, if the rank difference is "diff", then the following
table gives the handicap and komi:
diff Handicap Komi diff Handicap Komi diff Handicap Komi
0 0 8.5 7 3 5.5 14 5 2.5
1 0 5.5 8 3 2.5 15 5 -0.5
2 0 2.5 9 3 -0.5 16 6 5.5
3 0 -0.5 10 4 5.5 17 6 2.5
4 2 5.5 11 4 2.5 18 6 -0.5
5 2 2.5 12 4 -0.5 19 6 -3.5
6 2 -0.5 13 5 5.5 20 6 -6.5
4. What public domain programs can I get to play go?
Very few public domain programs exist. Those that do are extremely
weak. On the archive site, you will find comp/wally.c, which can be
compiled anywhere. If you think wally.c is too strong, you can get
the even weaker gnugo from prep.ai.mit.edu in pub/gnu/gnugo-1.1.tar.Z.
If you have X11, you can get xgoban from the archive site
(prog/xgoban-1.0.sh.Z) to act as a graphical interface to either wally
or gnugo. Macintosh users can try MacGo or Dragon Go (available on
the archive site). Amiga users can get Amigo (comp/amigo.lzh on the
archive site). Amigo has been ported to X11 (comp/xamigo.sh.Z). If
you have access to an HP9000 either 680x0 based or HP-PA risc based,
you can get Many Faces of Go for X11 from ftp.uu.net in
games/hp-xgo.shar.Z.
5. What commercial programs can I get to play go?
The information in this section may be somewhat out of date. Prices or
version numbers may be wrong.
The Many Faces of Go, $59.95 (add $2.25 for shipping; in CA add
sales tax)
ISBN 0-923891-28-5
(Version for MSDOS)
Ishi Press International Ishi Press International
76 Bonaventura Drive 20 Bruges Place
San Jose, CA 95134 London England NW1 OTE
Tel: (408)944-9900
FAX: (408)944-9110 071 284 4898
Ishi Press
1301-5 Yabata
Chigasaki-Shi
Kanagawa-ken 253
(0467)83-4369
(0467)83-4710 (fax)
Japan
Star of Poland, Version 3.1, $110
OPENetwork
215 Berkeley Pl.
Brooklyn, NY 11217
(718) 638-2266
Nemesis Version 3 was available for $79 (also $49 for Joseki Tutor and
$59 for Tactical Wizard -- tsume go analyzer). Current Nemesis is
version 5. Toyogo is now located in Hawaii. Call 1-800 TOYOGO9 for
details.
(versions for Macintosh, PC, and NEC 9801, add $6 for shipping)
Go Intellect 1990 Computer Olympiad 1st place; 1990 International
Computer Go Congress world championship tied for 1st/2nd place. Go
Intellect version 2.98 can be ordered directly from the author. An
reduced cost upgrade from 2.0 to 2.98 is also available (Version for
macintosh)
Dr. Ken Chen
4407 Oak Lane
Charlotte, NC 28213
Go Explorer runs on top of Smart Go and is available from Anders
Kierulf. (For macintosh)
Anders Kierulf
Smart Game Board
P.O. Box 7751
Menlo Park, CA 94026-7751
The following is taken from an ad in _Go_World, issue 53, Autumn 88:
Goliath 2, Dfl 99.- (Add 10% for surface, 20% for air shipment)
Intl. M.O. or cheque or remit to the following account:
N.M.B. Bank Amsterdam 69.17.05.070
(Version for Atari ST, monochrome, and MSDOS)
Divo Publishing
M. Gijzenburg 14
2907 HG Capelle a/d IJssel
The Netherlands
Many Faces of Go, Nemesis, and Contender (Mac) are available from Ishi
Press.
Ishi Press International Ishi Press International
76 Bonaventura Drive 20 Bruges Place
San Jose, CA 95134 London England NW1 OTE
Tel: (408)944-9900
FAX: (408)944-9110 071 284 4898
6. How strong are the commercial programs?
It's difficult to rank the programs because they are all very
inconsistent in their play. They may play a sequence of moves that
look dan level, or solve a dan level problem during play, but then a
few moves later they will make a move that a 20 kyu would never make.
Since none of the current programs can learn from their own mistakes,
when the same situation comes up they will make the same bad move
again.
The top program in the world (Goliath) claims to be around 8 or 10
Kyu. Many Faces of Go and Nemesis claim to be 13 Kyu. Poka claims to
be about 17 Kyu, and Dragon Go is about 17 kyu as well. These claims
are generally based on games that are the first game the human has
played against a computer. Nemesis has played in AGA rated
tournaments for its rating.
David Fotland (Author of Many Faces of Go) says, "I know someone who
was having trouble beating Many Faces at 13 stones until I suggested
he could beat it at 29 stones. He spent a few weeks trying odd moves
and found some weaknesses, and now he has no trouble beating it at 29
stones. Each of the programs has different weaknesses, but they all
tend to collapse tactically in a complicated position, so if attach
and crosscut a lot you can usually win big."
Results of 1991 North American Computer Go Tournament
1st: Many Faces of Go, By David Fotland 2nd: Go Intellect, by Ken Chen
3rd: Stone, by Kao 4th: Contender, by Lynn Beus and Jim Logan 5th:
Nemesis, by Bruce Wilcox 6th: Swiss Explorer, by Martin Mueller and
Anders Kierulf
Swiss Explorer forfeited two games, to Many faces and Nemesis, because
it was late and missed two rounds. Swiss explorer lost to Contender
due to an unrecoverable crash, but Contender was ahead at the time.
Nemesis lost two games, to Contender and Stone, due to unrecoverable
crashes. The game between Many Faces and Go Intellect was exciting -
both programs killed large enemy groups, and the score swung over 100
points each way in the middle game, then the programs left a very
large ko on the board until the last dame was filled. Many Faces beat
Stone by about 20 points and Nemesis and Contender by about 140 points
each.
Results from the 1991 World computer Go Congress:
Main Computer Tournament:
Place Program Author Country
Wins
1 6 Goliath Mark Boon Netherlands
2 5 Go Intellect Ken Chen USA (lost to Goliath)
3 4 Dragon Tung-Yueh Liu Taiwan
4 4 Weiki III Sanechika Japan
5 4 Star of Poland Kraszek Poland
6 3 Handtalk ZhiXing Cheng China
7 3 Stone Kuo-Yuan Kao Taiwan
8 3 Modgo Knoepfle Germany
9 3 Mac Won-Ho Jee Korea
10 3 Many Faces David Fotland USA
11 2 Nemesis Bruce Wilcox USA
12 2 Hirartsuka Shigyou Japan
13 1 Explorer Martin Muller Switzerland
14 1 Daihoninbo Yoshikawa Japan (Win was due to a bye)
15 0 Go Yuzhi Yang China (crashed every round)
"Best Design" prize for the program with the overall best combination
of ease of use, features, look, and playing strength, went to Many
Faces of Go.
Goliath went on to challange the 3 human players (young 5 dans), at a
16 play handicap and won all 3 games. It challenged at the next level
(14 play handicap), and lost all three games. Next year the human
challenge will be at a 14 play handicap.
7. What computer go tournaments exist? What are the prizes?
There is a North American Championship every year at the Go Congress
the first week of August. Plaques and the title of North American
Computer Go Champion are the prizes. There is a similar competition
at the European Go Congress. There is a Computer Games Olympiad every
year in London in the summer that includes Computer Go. The Usenix
conference used have a computer go competition every year, and may
still - no prizes.
The big money is in the World Computer Go Congress, sponsored by Ing
Chang Chi and Acer in Taiwan. They have a preliminary competition
every August (formerly held in Europe, USA, and Japan, but now held in
Taipei with programs that are mailed in by their authors). If you do
well in the preliminary (defined as beating two of 3 benchmark
programs - this year the benchmarks were Stone, Friday, and Goliath)
you will be reimbursed for 1/2 of your air fare to the Congress. The
congress is held on November 11 and 12 in various places. In 1990 it
was in Beijing. In 1991 it was in in Singapore. First prize for the
best computer program is about $8,000. Second is about $1,000 and 3rd
is about $500. The winning computer program plays a 3 game series
against the Taiwan youth champion (usually a 12 year old 5 Dan) and
gets another $8000 if it wins. This prize went unclaimed for five
years, but in 1991 Goliath beat all three human challengers, so the
handicap has been decreased to 14 moves. The top prize if for winning
a 7 game series against a professional (of unspecified rank) is about
$1.6 Million. The contest only runs through the year 2000 so the top
prize will go unclaimed.